Ebook Relationship of Body Attitude and Personality Characteristics to Dietary Intake in Female Collegiate Athletes
Body image or body attitude is a psychological construct which refers to self perception including self image and feelings an individual perceives about his or her body (Davies & Furnham, 1986). Body image can significantly effect the way an individual perceives and interacts with the surrounding environment. An individual with a distorted body image for instance may also suffer from low self-esteem or lack feelings of self worth based on perceived physical appearance. The construct of body image can be broken down into two and often three dimensions. The first dimension is cognitive, how an individual “thinks” he or she looks. The second is emotional, how an individual “feels” he or she looks. Last is idealistic, how an individual “wants” to look (Probst, Vandereycken, & Coppenolle, 1998). All three dimensions can be different at any given point in time.
The term body image or body attitude has numerous connotations associated with it particularly for females. Psychologically, formation of body attitude is complex and can be influenced beginning in infancy and continuing throughout adulthood (Fontaine, 1991). Various social influences have been documented which not only impact, but can significantly alter an individuals’ body attitude at any point during the life cycle. Influences such as parents and media have been largely documented in the literature (Fontaine, 1991; Hill & Franklin, 1998; King, Touyz, & Charles, 2000; Ogden & Steward, 2000; Tigemann & Pickering, 1996). A study by King, Touyz, & Charles (2000) suggested that women are significantly effected by media celebrities appearance in the judgement of their own appearance and that women with a higher degree of body dissatisfaction are more strongly effected by media exposure. This type of media representation can induce long standing ramifications on the body images and attitudes of both adolescent females and women living in today’s society.
Females are more likely than males to struggle with body image distortion mainly due to societal messages which are often conflicting and confusing regarding female roles and expectations (Fontaine, 1991). Women are often encouraged to achieve a lean and almost prepubescent look, which by society’s standards is considered to be “beautiful” or “sexy.” In contrast, women are expected to be career oriented and competitive with men on the basis of mental competence in a male dominated business world; yet women are still largely judged by their physical characteristics (Fontaine, 1991). These types of messages are not misunderstood by any female who wishes to be successful in today’s society forcing many women to harshly misjudge their physical appearance and often take drastic measures to ensure their physical appearance meets society’s expectations.
For female athletes, the pressure to be thin may be even greater. Female athletes have exceedingly higher expectations placed on them compared to male counterparts from individuals such as coaches, parents and peers in addition to the media in respect to what is “ideal” for their physical appearance especially in aesthetic or light weight sports such as gymnastics and dance. Factors such as the perception that a lighter body weight or less body fat will equate to better performance can exacerbate an already well established body dissatisfaction problem in adolescent female athletes in general. Young female athletes who struggle with body image distortion or dissatisfaction through adolescence, are more likely to suffer from body image distortion as an adult (Allaz, Bernstein, Rouget, Archinard, & Morabia, 1998; Cullari, Rohrer, & Bahm, 1998); and numerous studies indicate that female athletes in aesthetic sports suffer from body image dissatisfaction (Hallinan, 1991; Huddy, Nieman, & Johnson, 1993; Saint-Phard, Van Dorsten, Marx, & York, 1999). Many studies also indicate that body image dissatisfaction is not limited to aesthetic sports only, but that females involved in non-aesthetic sports are also likely to struggle with body image dissatisfaction as well although the literature is less conclusive on that point.
A relationship between body image dissatisfaction and eating disordered behavior has been well established in the literature in both female athletes and non-athletes (Davis, Durnin, Gurevich, Maire, & Dionne, 1993; Fogelhom & Hilloskorpi, 1999; Williamson et al., 1995). However, eating disorders are much more complex than a matter of eating too much or not enough. It involves the interaction of biological, psychological, developmental, familial, and sociocultural factors but is related to the cultural ideal of thinness (Fontaine, 1991). Female athletes in particular are likely to develop eating isordered behavior because they get a series of mixed messages from society. Female athletes are supposed to be strong and graceful, yet are also supposed to meet the ideal of thinness and femininity demanded by society (Johnson, 1994). Female athletes are also under pressure to optimize performance and meet unrealistic weight or body fat goals in short periods of time which may lead to severe weight loss practices (Agostini, 1994).
The implication that eating disorders are pervasive in athletes, especially female athletes lead the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) to fund a study researching the prevalence of disordered eating among 1,445 student athletes from 11 Division 1 schools. Each athlete was surveyed utilizing a 133-item questionnaire. Results suggested that 1.1% of the females met DSM-IV criteria for bulimia nervosa; 9.2% were identified as suffering clinically significant problems with bulimia nervosa; 2.85% were identified as suffering clinically significant problems with anorexia nervosa; 10.85% reported binge eating on a weekly or greater basis and 5.52% reported purging behavior on a weekly or greater basis (Johnson, Powers & Dick, 1999). These percentages are statistically low, potentially leading to the belief that eating disorders are not as pervasive as many studies have previously reported. However, this study did not include questions pertaining to chronic dieting behavior or purposeful energy restriction, which are not considered to be clinical eating disorders, but may actually be a more common form of eating disordered behavior in female athletes.
Due to added pressures on female athletes and non-athletes, many individuals suffer from what is defined as a subclinical eating disorder. A true definition of subclinical eating disorders remains vague even though numerous studies have indicated a causal relationship between body image measures and both subclinical and clinical eating disorders particularly in female athletes (Fogelholm & Hilloskorpi, 1999; Parks & Read, 1997; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Sykora, Grilo, Wilfley, & Brownell, 1993; Williamson et al., 1995; Ziegler et al., 1998b). Overall, athletes and/or non-athletes suffering from subclinical eating disorders do not meet all the strict criteria for either anorexia or bulimia nervosa defined in DSM-IV. However, these individuals often exhibit serious eating problems such as restricting caloric intake and pervasive body weight concerns (Parks & Read, 1997; Sykora et al., 1993; Ziegler et al., 1998a). A study by Fries (1974) proposed a continuum hypothesis of eating and dieting behavior suggesting that stringent dieting, although subclinical, may potentially lead to future problems with eating disordered behavior potentially leading into a diagnosable clinical eating disorder. Sundgot-Borgen (1993b) further defined distinguishing features of a form of subclinical eating disorders known as anorexia athletica. Athletes suffering from this disorder experience weight loss > 5% of expected body weight with an absence of any medical illness of affective disorder explaining the weight reduction, frequent gastrointestinal complaints, excessive fear of becoming obese and restriction of food <1,200 kcal/day. These athletes may or may not suffer from a distorted body image but may share various common psychological traits with clinical eating disorders such as high achievement orientation, obsessive-compulsive tendencies, and perfectionism.
Chronic dieting or purposeful energy restriction has been well documented in both female and male athletes (Lopez-Varela, Montero, Chandra, & Marcos, 2000; Sugiura, Suzuki, & Kobayashi, 1999) and there is a burgeoning of literature indicating a significant problem in female athletes specifically (Nuviala, Lapieza, & Bernal, 1999; Webster & Barr, 1995; Zeigler, Nelson, & Jonnalagadda, 1999). Energy balance for athletes can be difficult to quantify since depending upon the sport, the athlete may need to gain, lose or maintain weight. Not only is energy balance important for athletes, but also carbohydrate stores, vitamin and mineral stores, bone health and menstrual status in women. Any change in energy balance or nutritional status can have direct repercussions on athletic performance (Thompson, 1998). It has been well documented that adult athletes have higher energy needs than sedentary adults. In addition, athletes involved in strength/power sports have a much higher recommended dietary protein intake than athletes engaging in endurance sports (1.4-1.7g/kg vs. 1.0-1.2g/kg respectively) (Economos et al., 1993).
Due to athletes’ high training volume and intensity, it has also been recommended that athletes consume a diet rich in vitamins and minerals as well (Economos, Bortz, & Nelson, 1993). Unfortunately, numerous studies measuring energy intake in female athletes frequently report caloric intake significantly below recommended values (Mulligan & Butterfield, 1990; Prior, Vigna, Schechter, & Burgess, 1990). Decreased total energy intake (macronutrients) in female athletes would usually suggest a decrease in vitamin and mineral (micronutrients) intake as well as suggested by Sundgot-Borgen (1993a). Osteoporosis is a disorder of the skeletal system in which the bone becomes thin and fragile increasing the risk of fracture (Kohlmeier, 1999). Osteoporosis currently affects over 20 million women in the United States. Since peak bone mass is accrued between the ages of 25-30 years and the rate of bone growth is greatest during puberty, any factors such as estrogen loss (amenorrea) or deficient calcium and vitamin D intake during this time frame could have long standing health ramifications. Common risk factors for the development of osteoporosis include a genetic predisposition, Caucasian or Asian ethnicity, old age, low body mass index or thin body frame, steroid medication use, and estrogen deficiency. Lifestyle habits such as excessive alcohol use, low calcium intake, cigarette smoking and reduced physical activity are also associated with bone loss (Kohlmeier, 1999). Many female athletes’ report decreased dietary intake of calcium and frequent menstruation problems (low estrogen) exacerbating the likelihood of experiencing low bone mineral density, increased risk of stress fractures, and an increased chance of developing osteoporosis. Although chronic dieting or purposeful energy restriction does not represent one of the current standards for a diagnosable clinical eating disorder, the ramifications of this type of behavior in female athletes are far reaching and have the potential to be severe and chronic.
Another set of factors that could potentially impact both body image and eating disordered behavior, especially in female athletes, are personality traits inherent in individuals struggling with body dissatisfaction and/or eating disordered behavior. Common traits include perfectionism, obsessive compulsive tendencies, competitiveness, drive for thinness, and ineffectiveness (Geller, Cockell, & Goldner, 2000; Neumarker, Bettle, Neumarker, & Bettle, 2000; Olsen, Williford, Richards, Brown, & Pugh, 1996). Interestingly enough, traits such as perfectionism and obsessive compulsive tendencies appear to contribute to the formation of competitive athletes and are commonly found in athletes in general (Fulkerson, Keel, Leon, & Dorr, 1999).
The literature is replete with studies indicating a strong relationship between body image dissatisfaction and eating disordered behavior in female athletes especially in aesthetic and light weight sports. However, in non-aesthetic sports, the relationship appears to be less definitive. The literature is also vague and less conclusive on the relationship of dietary intake to body image dissatisfaction and almost non-existent in the prediction of eating disordered behaviors based on dietary intake, body attitude and quantifiable personality traits.
ONTENTS
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter 1 Introduction
- Statement of Problem
Research Hypothesis
Significance to the Field
Basic Assumptions
Delimitations
Limitations
Operational Definitions
Chapter 2 Review of the Literature
- Body Image in Female Athletes
Body Image and Eating Disorders in Athletes
Eating Disorders and Female Athletes
Nutrient Intake in Athletes
Health Implications of Inadequate Dietary Intake
Personality Characteristics in Female Athletes
Summary
Chapter 3 Methods
- Introduction
Subjects
Data Collection
Instrumentation
Dietary Records
Eating Disorder Inventory-2
Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitude Questionnaire
Cognitive Behavior Dieting Scale
Silhouette Scale
- Statistical Analysis
Chapter 4 Results
- Eating Disorder Inventory-2
Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitude Questionnaire
Cognitive Behavioral Dieting Scale
Silhouette Scale
Dietary Intake
Differences in Dietary Intake, Selected Body Attitude Scores, and
Selected Personality Traits Between Groups
- Relationship of Dietary Intake to Body Attitude and Personality
Characteristics
Lacrosse
Dance Group
Comparison Group
- Prediction Equation Using Stepwise Multiple Regression Lacrosse
Dance Group
Comparison Group
Combined Groups
Dummy Variable Combined Groups
Chapter 5 Discussion
- Body Attitude, Personality Traits and Aesthetic and Non-Aesthetic Sports 56
Silhouette Scale Body Attitude
Body Attitude and Dietary Intake
Body Attitude and Personality Traits
Dietary Intake Prediction Equations
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
Appendices
- Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
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