Ebook Emerging Market Business Cycles: The Cycle is the Trend
While business cycle fluctuations in developed markets may have moderated in recent decades, business cycles in emerging markets are characterized increasingly by their large volatility and dramatic current account reversals, the so called “sudden stop” phenomenon. The question we explore here is whether a standard real business cycle model can qualitatively and quantitatively explain business cycle features of both emerging and developed small open economies (SOE). Our underlying premise is that emerging markets, unlike developed markets, are characterized by frequent regime switches, a premise motivated by the dramatic reversals in fiscal, monetary and trade policies observed in these economies. Consequently, shocks to trend growth are the primary source of fluctuations in these markets as opposed to transitory fluctuations around the trend. On the other hand, developed markets are characterized by a relatively stable trend. We show that this simple distinction takes us quite far in explaining differences in the two types of economies. In a standard framework with empirically estimated parameters, we generate strongly countercyclical current accounts, consumption volatility that exceeds income volatility, and sudden stops, all defining characteristics of emerging markets.
We begin by documenting in Section 2 several features of economic fluctuations in emerging and developed SOE for the period 1980-2003. A striking feature that distinguishes the business cycles in the two is the strongly counter cyclical nature of the trade balance for emerging markets as compared to developed markets. A second regularity is that consumption is forty percent more volatile than income at business-cycle frequencies for emerging markets, as compared to a ratio of little less than one for developed markets. In addition, income growth and net exports are twice as volatile in emerging markets.
Our hypothesis is that emerging markets are characterized by a volatile trend that determines the behavior of the economy at business cycle frequencies. More precisely, the relative importance of the random walk component of the Solow residual is larger in emerging markets. To test this hypothesis empirically, we need to distinguish transitory shocks from permanent shocks in the data. When we estimate the random walk component directly using empirical measures of the Solow residual, we find the results supportive of our premise. However, not surprisingly, given the short time series of the data, the results are sensitive to specification and imprecisely estimated. Extending the series back in time would not be particularly useful as it is only in the most recent decades that the phenomenon of “emerging-market economies” is observed. Specifically, many of our emerging-market economies were essentially closed economies during earlier periods and consequently displayed sharply different current account dynamics. We therefore employ a methodology that uses the implications of a dynamic stochastic equilibrium model to precisely identify the underlying productivity parameters.
In an environment where agents have information regarding the persistence of the shock and respond in an optimizing manner, the behavior of macroeconomic aggregates such as consumption, investment and net exports can be used to identify the parameters of the underlying productivity process. The direct approach using Solow residuals ignores this information. The intuition for our identification strategy follows from the permanent income hypothesis. The response of consumption to an income shock will differ according to the persistence of the shock. Suppose, for instance, agents observe the economy entering a period of high growth. The fact that a shock to the growth rate implies a boost to current output, but an even larger boost to future output, implies that consumption responds more than income, reducing savings and generating a large trade deficit. Conversely, if the shock is transitory, agents will increase savings. Consumption accordingly will increase by less and the trade balance will deteriorate by a smaller amount. Therefore, if we observe in the data a large response of consumption to income and a corresponding large deterioration of net exports, the standard business cycle model will identify the underlying shock as a change in trend. If, however, for the same increase in output, consumption rises by less and net exports drop only slightly (or improve), the shock will be identified as a transitory shock. This methodology of combining consumption data with the permanent income hypothesis to identify the persistence of income shocks is similar to the approach in Campbell and Deaton (1989), Cochrane (1994), and Blundell and Preston (1998).
We demonstrate that this identification strategy can be used to precisely estimate the parameters of a productivity process that allows for both trend and transitory shocks. As our benchmark case, we use data from Mexico and Canada to represent emerging and developed markets respectively. Using data on consumption and income, we estimate the relative variance of the permanent component of productivity growth to total productivity growth to be 0.96 for Mexico and 0.37 for Canada. Similar estimates are obtained when using data on net exports rather than consumption. Using information from a wider set of moments generates essentially the same estimates as those obtained using only consumption or net exports. This underscores the fact that consumption is extremely informative regarding the persistence of income.
Moreover, the conclusions drawn from consumption are not contradicted by the information implicit in other moments. In particular, the theoretical business cycle moments on income, consumption, investment, and net exports, predicted using estimates of the productivity process for Mexico and Canada, match their empirical counterparts well. This is true even when we vary only two parameters — namely, the variances of trend and transitory shocks to productivity — between developed and emerging markets.
An additional test of consistency uses the empirical Solow residuals. The parameters of the productivity process were identified using the structural model and observed macroeconomic aggregates and were not estimated using direct measures of the Solow residual. Nevertheless, the variance and first eight autocovariances of the filtered Solow residual generated by the model are close to those found in the data. In particular, we cannot reject that the productivity moments of the model equal those in the data at standard confidence levels.
We also demonstrate that our model is consistent with the appearance of large current account reversals or “sudden stops.” We use the Kalman filter and the estimated parameters to decompose the observed Solow residual series for Mexico into trend and transitory components. When we feed the decomposed Solow residuals into the model, we generate a sharp “sudden stop” in 1994-95, including an abrupt and sizeable reversal in the trade balance combined with contractions in output, consumption and investment. The model predicts that the trade balance as a ratio of GDP should reverse by 8.2 percentage points between the third quarter of 1994 and the second quarter of 1995, which is similar to the 9.6 percentage-point reversal observed in the data. It is not just the magnitude of the shock, but additionally the association of the negative productivity shock with a change in trend, that lies behind the large sudden stop.
There exists a long and growing literature that seeks to explain the countercyclicality of current accounts and sudden stops in emerging markets. The international RBC literature showed early on that following a positive transitory shock to productivity, the trade balance can deteriorate even as savings rise because of the response of increased investment (Mendoza 1991, Backus, Kehoe, and Kydland, 1995). Following the preceding discussion, the higher the persistence of the shock the larger the trade balance deterioration. However, in the data, (HP-filtered) log GDP in emerging markets exhibit roughly the same autocorrelation as in developed small open economies. We show that this latter fact is not inconsistent with the hypothesis that emerging and developed markets face different combinations of trend and transitory shocks. This underscores how little information regarding persistence can be gleaned from the income process alone. Correspondingly, the standard model fails to quantitatively match the magnitude of the countercyclicality of the current account in emerging markets when calibrated as an AR(1) process using the observed autocorrelation of income (see Correia et al. 1995).
While we use a standard RBC model, we do not claim that market imperfections are unimportant. The differences in the Solow residual processes between developed and emerging markets may well be a manifestation of deeper frictions in the economy. Shocks to trend output in emerging markets are often associated with clearly defined changes in government policy, including dramatic changes in monetary, fiscal, and trade policies. Chari, Kehoe, and McGrattan (forthcoming), for instance, show that many frictions, including financial frictions, can be represented in reduced form as Solow residuals. From the perspective of private agents in our economy, these shocks appear as exogenous shifts in productivity. Our analysis provides support for models with frictions that are reflected in the persistence of Solow residuals, rather than frictions that distort the response of investment and consumption to underlying productivity.
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